How To Write A Research Paper In 6 Steps

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Help With Writing A Research Paper Writing Center 24

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Help With Writing A Research Paper Writing Center 24

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Help With Writing A Research Paper Writing Center 24

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Access to Justice in the English Legal System - Free Essay Example

Access to Justice Legal aid was introduced after the Second World War to permit people who could not otherwise afford the services of lawyers to be provided with those services by the State.[1]The system and costs grew hugely over the decades and underwent various restrictions and cutbacks during the late 1990s.[2]Although there have been many high cost claims on the legal aid budget, the scale of the continued rise in spending is not the result of individual or collective wastefulness.[3] It is the result of systemic weaknesses in the way legal aid services are obtained and therefore inefficiencies in the way those services are delivered.[4] The process for evaluating if an individual meet the requirements for civil legal aid and criminal legal aid is different. In civil legal aid, a personà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s income and capital must be within definite limits, this is called the means test and their case needs to have a reasonable chance of winning; the merits test. [5] In criminal legal aid, the means test is also considered but in a different way. In addition, the more serious the charge and possible consequences, the more likely it is that the person will qualify for the interests of justice test.[6] The Community Legal Service (Financial Amendment) Regulations 2007 set out the onsets for financial eligibility for all requests for funding. The test uses basic concepts of à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"disposable incomeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢, that is, income available to a person after deducting essential living expenses, and à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"disposal capitalà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢, that is, the assets owned by a person after essentials items like a home.[7] In addition to the financial eligibility, an applicantà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s case must also satisfy a new merits test. The commission prepared a Code (2007) which replaces, and is intended to be more flexible than, the merits test that was used for civil legal aid. The code sets out the criteria for determining whether legal aid services should be provided in a particular case.[8] Further legal aid restrictions endanger access to justice; say MPs.[9]Joint committee on human rights warns that Ministry of Justice(MoJ) should not fall into trap of knowing the price of everything but value of nothing.[10]MoJ proposed one-year residence test, the committee calls for broader exemptions, specific ally in cases involving children.[11] It said: Refugees may be unable to access civil legal aid during their first few months of lawful residence in the UK. This is particularly worrying as this is the time that many refugees may need assistance in securing services they are entitled to. [12]Under the MoJ reforms prisoners will lose legal aid for challenges over prison conditions but can keep it for legal challenges involving their liberty. The report said: In some cases only the retention of public funding will be sufficient to prevent infringements of prisoners right of access to court arising in practice.[13] Removing legal aid funding for borderline cases could affect human rights challenges and save only  £1m a year, the JCHR added.[14] The orthodox view is that individualà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s rights to access justice cannot be denied when considering Article 6 of the European Convention of Human Rights (ECHR). Article6givesyou therighttobringacivil or criminalcasetocou rt, the right to a fair and public hearing embodied in international human rights treaties. Thelegalsystemmust besetupinsuch a waythatthe general publicarenotomittedfrom thecourtprocess.Therightofaccessto courtisnot,however,unlimitedandthe ECHRhas acceptedthatcategoricalpeople[15] can berestrictedfrombringingcases. However, Article6doesnotgiveageneralrightto legalaidineverycivilcaseinvolvinga personwhocannotafford tobring proceedings[16]. However, legalaid mayberequiredbyArticle6insomecivil cases,forexampleincasesor proceedingsthatareverycomplex,orin circumstanceswhere a personisrequired tohavealawyerrepresentingthem.[17] In criminal cases, those who cannot pay the service of a lawyer to exercise their procedural rights are affected by the lack of effective protection of the right to legal aid. It may lessen their chance to influence the outcome of the proceedings when their liberty is at stake.[18] In civil cases, citizens are unable to protect and declare their civil, econom ic, social and cultural rights because of the lack of available mechanisms for resolving legal disputes. In both criminal and civil cases, the lack of access to justice results in reduced public assurance in the legal system, which is cornerstone for every democratic state rooted in the principles of the rule of law, human rights and democracy[19]. In a criminal case, a police custody officer will help you get legal aid if youà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ve been detained and held at a police station. A solicitor will check if you qualify for legal aid if youà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢re charged with a crime. You will get legal aid automatically if youà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢re under 16 or on certain benefits.[20] However there was no right under common law to legal aid in all circumstances, but Grayling said that common law undoubtedly recognised a right of effective access to court, which means that legal aid may be required in certain circumstances in order for the right of access to be meaningful.[21] Meanwhile, the justice secretarys plan to cut defence  barristers fees by at least 30% in the most complex and demanding criminal cases came under attack in the House of Lords.[22] For instance, in the case of O.F. v Norway[23] the accused was deprived of legal aid by the State Party in defending charges of a traffic offence.[24] The State Party argued that there was no concern raised under article 14 3(d) owing to the triviality of the offence, therefore the consequence should only result in a small fine.[25] The Human Rights Court (HRC) concurred that the accused had not been able to show that in his particular case the interests of justice would have essentially required legal aid services.[26] Obviously when determining to grant or refuse legal aid in the context of à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“interests of justiceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ , the severity of the offence is considered. There has been a suggestion in the case law that a State may refuse legal aid to litigants on the basis of a val ue judgment on the objective chances of success, even in a case where the severity of the offence is not doubtful. In Z.P. v Canada[27] the Court upheld the decision by the Canadian authorities to deny access to legal aid in an appeal against a conviction for rape on the basis of an apparent lack of merits in the appeal. However, cases regarding capital punishment would be an exception to this rejection of legal.[28] Another issue presumably relevant to this header is the quality of representation. The issue is addressed in the jurisprudence of the HRC[29] on stating that lawyers should be able to counsel and to represent their clients in line with their established professional standards and judgment without any constraints, influences, pressures or undue interference from any quarter. The jurisprudence of the HRC also states that the authorities owe a duty to take measures as to ensure that the accused is efficiently represented[30]. Furthermore, in the case of a lawyer represe nting an accused on appeal, there should be effective support[31]. In Estrella v Uruguay[32] the HRC held that when an accused was offered only a limited choice of officially appointed counsel and the counsel then adopted à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“the attitude of a prosecutorà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ , an adequate defence has been violated and there is a breach of Human Rights.[33] The Alternative Funding Arrangements[34] (AFA) increases access to justice whilst limiting public expenditure. AFA occur when payments to a law firm are based on a method other than billable hours[35].The conditional fee is the classic example of an AFA for which the percentage of the money won at trial or on settlement is collected by the firm; only if the legal action is financially successful that the client pays. However, AFAs encompass a large variety of arrangements and there is a disruptive but inevitable move to AFA[36]. The most recent approach intended to promote access to justice at proportionate cost is the Jackson Report in 2013. The idea is to dissuade avoidable claims from going to court[37]. According to the MoJ spokesman à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"this will require changes to legal rules and regulationsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢[38].There can be no doubt that the Jackson reforms comprise significant changes[39] to civil procedure and will have a wide-ranging impact. However, the impact remains solely on how future court reports on their application and how alterations will really work in practice. The Access to Justice Act 1999 (ss 27-31), together with the Conditional Fee Order 2013, reformed the law relating to conditional fees with the intention to discourage weak cases and encourage settlements. Conditional fee agreements play a valuable role in helping people with valid claims to obtain access to justice.[40] This Order implementsSection 44of the Legal Aid, Sentencing and Punishment of Offenders Act 2012 (LASPO) which eradicates recoverability of success fees from the losing party in relation to any conditional fee agreements[41]. Insofar, it can be further argued that there has been an optimistic approach to allow potential individuals to access justice through legal aid system. WORD COUNT: 1540 Bibliography STATUTES: Access to Justice Act 1999 Conditional Fee Order 2013 Legal Aid, Sentencing and Punishment of Offenders Act 2012 (LASPO) Community Legal Service (Financial Amendment) Regulations 2007 Code (2007) CASES: O.F. v Norway [1984] CCPR/C/OP/2 at 44 (1990) Z.P. v Canada [1991] CCPR/C/41/D/341 Kelly v Jamaica [1991] CCPR/C/41/D/253 Estrella v Uruguay [1990] CCPR/C/OP/2 BOOKS: Gary Slapper Kelly, English Legal System, fourteenth edition, Routledge,2013 Ministry of Justice, makingsenseofHumanRights:Ashort introduction (summarybooklet), October2006 WEBSITES: https://www.lccsa.org.uk/assets/documents/consultation/carter%20review%2013072006.pdf , accessed on 02/12/2013 https://www.theguardian.com/law/2013/dec/13/further-legal-aid-restrictions-endangers-access-justice , accessed on 16/12/2013 https://www.gov.uk/legal-aid/eligibility ,accessed on 13/12/2013 https://www.nuigalway.ie/sites/eu-china-humanrights/seminars/ds0406d/marcela%20rodriguez-farrelly-eng.doc ,accessed on 13/12/13 https://www1.umn.edu/humanrts/gencomm/hrcom13.htm ,accessed on 12/12/13 www.justice.gov.uk , accessed on 12/12/2013 https://www.theguardian.com/law/2013/dec/13/committee-warns-legal-aid-cuts-may-breach-human-rights, accessed on 16/12/2013 https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2012/10/contents/enacted accessed on 24/01/2014 accessed on 24/01/2014 https://www.newsquarechambers.co.uk/files/Newsletters/Legal%20Update%20-%20April%202013.pdf accessed on 24/01/2014 https://www.rawlisonbutler.com/news/22342 accessed on 25/01/2014 https://www.lawgazette.co.uk/64021.article accessed on 25/01/2014 https://www.lawdable.com/2009/02/articles/practice-areas/alternative-fee-arrangements-gain-traction/ accessed on 25/01/2014 https://www.hgexperts.com/article.asp?id=7551 accessed on 25/01/2014 https://www.afalaw.co.uk/ accessed on 26/01/2014 [1] Gary Slapper Kelly, English Legal System, fourteenth edition, Routledge,2013,page 651 [2] Ibid [3] https://www.lccsa.org.uk/assets/documents/consultation/carter%20review%2013072006.pdf, pg 3, accessed on 02/12/2013 [4] Ibid [5] www.justice.gov.uk accessed on 12/12/2013 [6] Ibid [7] Ibid [8] Gary Slapper Kelly, English Legal System, fourteenth edition, Routledge,2013,page 661 [9] https://www.theguardian.com/law/2013/dec/13/further-legal-aid-restrictions-endangers-access-justice, accessed on 16/12/2013 [10] Ibid [11] https://www.theguardian.com/law/2013/dec/13/further-legal-aid-restrictions-endangers-access-justice, accessed on 16/12/2013 [12] https://www.theguardian.com/law/2013/dec/13/further-legal-aid-restrictions-endangers-access-justice, accessed on 16/12/2013 [13] Ibid [14] Ibid [15] Ministry of Justice, makingsenseofHumanRights:Ashort introduction (summarybooklet), October2006, page 19 [16] Ibid [17] Ibid [18] https:// www.nuigalway.ie/sites/eu-china-humanrights/seminars/ds0406d/marcela%20rodriguez-farrelly-eng.doc accessed on 13/12/2013 [19]Ibid [20] https://www.gov.uk/legal-aid/eligibility, accessed on 13/12/2013 [21] https://www.theguardian.com/law/2013/dec/13/committee-warns-legal-aid-cuts-may-breach-human-rights, accessed on 16/12/2013 [22] Ibid [23] O.F. v Norway [1984] CCPR/C/OP/2 at 44 (1990) [24]https://www.nuigalway.ie/sites/eu-china-humanrights/seminars/ds0406d/marcela%20rodriguez-farrelly-eng.doc page 6, paragraph 5 accessed on 13/12/2013 [25] Ibid [26] Ibid [27] Z.P. v Canada [1991] CCPR/C/41/D/341 [28] Ibid [29] https://www1.umn.edu/humanrts/gencomm/hrcom13.htm, HRC Comment 13, paragraph 9, accessed on 12/12/13 [30] Kelly v Jamaica [1991] CCPR/C/41/D/253 [31] ibid [32] Estrella v Uruguay [1990] CCPR/C/OP/2 [33] Estrella v Uruguay [1990] CCPR/C/OP/2 [34] https://www.afalaw.co.uk/ accessed on 26/01/2014 [35] https://www.lawdable.com/20 09/02/articles/practice-areas/alternative-fee-arrangements-gain-traction/ accessed on 25/01/2014 [36] https://www.hgexperts.com/article.asp?id=7551 accessed on 25/01/2014 [37] https://www.rawlisonbutler.com/news/22342 accessed on 25/01/2014 [38] https://www.lawgazette.co.uk/64021.article accessed on 25/01/2014 [39] https://www.newsquarechambers.co.uk/files/Newsletters/Legal%20Update%20-%20April%202013.pdf accessed on 24/01/2014 [40] Gary Slapper Kelly, English Legal System, fourteenth edition, Routledge,2013 [41] https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2012/10/contents/enacted accessed on 24/01/2014

The Ethics Of Enron Oxley Act - 1309 Words

The Houston based corporation of Enron was once considered a top company, until its demise from a complex accounting scheme. The company that was forced to declare bankruptcy and lay off many employees; also resulted in thousands of others losing a significant portion of their retirement funds that were invested in the company’s stock (Ferrell, Fraedrich, Ferrell, 2013). Additionally, the perceived scandal propagated concern of accounting practices of corporations and initiated new reporting practices like the Sarbanes-Oxley Act. Enron was created from the joining of gas pipeline companies in 1985 and was responsible for natural gas, electricity, and communication products and services (Ferrell, et al, p.318). During the 1990’s,†¦show more content†¦The culture also focused on making money for executives more than profits for shareholders (Ferrell, et al, p.321). The compensation package stimulated risky decisions, possibly breaking rules in an effort to increase financial results. Employees were rated bi-annually, a system designed by Skilling, and the lower percentile were removed from payroll resulting in fierce competition (Ferrell, et al, p.321). Unfavorable news could result in dismissal, thus issues were suppressed. Lay believed the ability of employees to reach full potential contributed to the company success. He also indicated his value in a â€Å"highly moral and ethical culture† and attempted to ensure this was realized within Enron (Ferrell, et al, p.321). While the indictment eluded that Lay had lied about finances, he persisted that he handled any identified items. This also raises concern about how much a CEO actually knows about misconduct in the business. The aggressive nature exhibited by Enron employees led to rules violations, many of which were approved through the proper channels. The complex format of checks and balances remove the possibility that the fall of Enron was the responsibility of a single individual. It was a combination of aggressive and questionable practices along with the failure of others to identify wrongdoings. The use of special-purpose entities (SPEs) contributed to filing of bankruptcy by Enron, the largest in corporate

Non Nutritional School Lunches free essay sample

More than ever school nutrition need to be a priority; however the public education system continues to cut corners rather than truly provide well rounded nutritional meals. In 2010 Obama signed the hunger-free kids act. Ever since then school lunches have been on the decline. Now schools need to have a mandatory amount of calories for each school level, elementary, middle, and high school. And as the grade increases so does the calorie limit, but not by much. Nationally the maximum limit for school lunch calories is 850 (Yee 4). This is the first time these regulations have been retooled in the past 30 years (Klein 1). Congress has not only put strict regulations on what is served in schools, but what is sold in vending machines and in school stores, such as our â€Å"Snack Shack†. The president of the School Nutrition Association in Washington said in a letter â€Å"It makes no sense to set one set of rules for the cafeteria and another set for the hallway. We will write a custom essay sample on Non Nutritional School Lunches or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page He also said â€Å"Failure to apply the same rules to all foods sold/served on the campus throughout the school day will erode the efforts schools are making to ensure the nutritional quality and the value of school meals (Klein 1). The reason that these new regulations on lunches is because the obesity rate is quite high in Americans. In adults obesity is 35. 7% and in Children its 17%. One way that schools have combated this new bill is they use less food to make sure that each lunch has the required amount of calories per student. But they also have been buying healthier food which in turn costs more money thus causing our price to go up on all lunches. One way to deal with this problem is buy the food in bulk and save money when they buy it. The problem that started this all was that the lunches in school were non-nutritional so they passed this bill. Malik Barrows a senior at Automotive high school said â€Å"at first there was no taste or flavor, now there is no taste, flavor, and now it’s healthy which worse (Yee 1) is. Many schools nationwide were feeding the kids not necessarily junk food but it wasn’t the most nutritional food. The food itself was nutritional, but the amounts werent healthy and there weren’t as many veggies. A solution to this problem might be to spend the money and give us larger portions of food and more of what we want. Research done by UCLA show that kids need to be exposed to foods they does not like about 10 -12 times before they will eat them on their own (Yee 3). Also the administration makes food more enjoyable to eat. Because if something is fun you will want to do it more often. Another problem is that the lunches are not appetizing to many students. At a middle school in New York several seventh graders pronounced vegetables as â€Å"gross† (Yee 2). Danielson Gutierrez age was interviewed at this middle school and he said, when he was asked about the fruit that he was given â€Å"I throw them out, I only like apples (Yee 2). William J. McCarthy, a professor at UCLA, said â€Å"If our task is to get children to eat fruits and vegetables we have to be willing to put up with the waste† (Yee 3). A solution to this might be to ask the students what they want to have in their lunches and not just put some kind of food in front of them and expect them to eat it. Doing that is just like the Faroese commercials where they blindfold people and asked them what they smell , and there reaction is good because it smells good in the room, but when they take off the blindfold they see that the room is disgusting and that it was not what they were expecting, food is the same way. If a plate of food was placed in front of you and it looked appetizing, you probably would take a bite and try it. Come to find out that it was horrible and disgusting. Now when you see that food again you will not want to even give it a chance because of your last experience with that food. The final problem is that there are not enough choices. If schools keep having the same lunch choices for lunch then it will get boring. Kind of like doing the same thing at a job after a while it gets old and worn out. Concluding this essay it might help you realize and try to change this bill and stop obesity in a different way. But schools will continue to cut corners if you don’t speak up and say what we want for lunch. If you don’t use your voice then nobody knows what you want and they go off of prior knowledge. And that is not always a good thing.